You’ll offer 3 full-length reading practices – each with:

• 3 complete passages (as in the actual IELTS exam)

• 13–14 questions per passage

• Mixed question types per passage

• Answer keys + brief explanations

📄 Reading Passage 1

Before the invention of paper, civilizations relied on various materials to record information. Ancient Egyptians used papyrus—thin sheets made from the pith of the papyrus plant. In other parts of the world, materials such as silk, bamboo, parchment, and clay tablets served as writing surfaces. These methods, while effective for their time, were expensive, labor-intensive, and not ideal for mass communication.

The earliest form of paper as we know it was invented in China during the Han dynasty, around 105 AD, by a court official named Cai Lun. He developed a method using mulberry bark, hemp waste, old rags, and fishnets, all soaked and pulped to form thin sheets. This innovation marked a significant shift in record keeping and communication, offering a more practical, affordable, and scalable solution.

Initially, paper production remained a closely guarded secret within China for centuries. However, in 751 AD, during a battle between Chinese and Arab forces in Central Asia, Chinese papermakers were captured and brought to the Abbasid Caliphate. This event is often credited with the transmission of papermaking techniques to the Islamic world. Baghdad became a hub of paper production by the 9th century, fueling a golden age of Islamic scholarship. The spread of paper accelerated intellectual pursuits, including science, philosophy, and mathematics.

Paper reached Europe much later, around the 11th century, through Spain and Sicily—regions under Islamic influence. The rise of universities and administrative systems in medieval Europe created an urgent need for inexpensive writing materials. Initially, paper faced resistance from scribes who favored parchment and viewed paper as inferior. But as demand grew and techniques improved, paper mills spread throughout Europe.

One of the most transformative moments in paper’s history was its role in the invention of the printing press by Johannes Gutenberg in the 15th century. Gutenberg’s press, combined with the affordability of paper, enabled the mass production of books. This revolutionized education, religious thought, and scientific exchange, laying the foundation for the modern knowledge economy.

Today, while digital alternatives are increasingly common, paper remains integral to daily life, from packaging and currency to education and art. Environmental concerns have prompted innovations in recycled paper and sustainable forestry, ensuring that paper’s legacy continues in a more eco-conscious form.

📝 Questions 1–13

Choose the correct answer or complete the questions according to the passage.
(Instructions per type included below.)

🔢 Questions 1–5: Matching Information

Match the following statements with the correct paragraph (A–F).

1. A battle led to the spread of papermaking knowledge outside China

2. Papermaking helped drive scientific and intellectual achievements in the Islamic world.

3. A printing innovation transformed the accessibility of written knowledge.

4. Earlier alternatives to paper were impractical for mass communication.

5. Some groups initially opposed the use of paper.
   
   

🔠 Questions 6–9: Multiple Choice

Choose the correct letter: A, B, C or D.

6. What material was not mentioned as a pre-paper writing medium?
   A. Papyrus
   B. Leather
   C. Clay
   D. Bamboo
   
   

7. Why did paper face early resistance in Europe?
   A. It was expensive to produce.
   B. It was considered less durable than parchment.
   C. It originated in China.
   D. It couldn’t be printed on.
   
   

8. Which historical event greatly increased book production?
   A. The opening of Baghdad’s first paper mill
   B. Gutenberg’s invention of movable type
   C. The spread of papermaking through Spain
   D. The use of silk as writing material
   
   

9. What is a modern concern regarding paper usage?
   A. Lack of affordability
   B. Too many traditional uses
   C. Environmental impact
   D. Declining demand
   
   

📑 Questions 10–13: Sentence Completion

Complete each sentence with NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage.

10. Cai Lun used __________ to create early forms of paper.

11. Baghdad was an important centre for __________.

12. European paper mills developed due to growing __________.

13. Sustainable forestry is one way to address __________ issues today.

📄 Reading Passage 2

Advertising is not merely about promoting a product—it is a sophisticated science rooted in psychology. Every slogan, color scheme, font style, and even background music is carefully chosen to influence consumer behavior and decision-making processes. As competition intensifies in global markets, companies increasingly turn to psychological strategies to gain an edge.

One of the most well-known psychological tools in advertising is emotional appeal. Rather than simply listing product features, advertisers often target human emotions such as happiness, nostalgia, fear, or excitement. For example, a commercial for a cleaning product may not just emphasize its efficiency but depict a cheerful family enjoying a clean, safe home. This emotional connection creates a positive association with the brand, making it more memorable and persuasive.

Another key strategy is social proof. Humans are inherently influenced by what others think and do. Advertisements that include customer testimonials, five-star ratings, or phrases like “best-selling” tap into this tendency. Even subtle cues such as showing a product in the hands of a crowd can trigger the belief that it must be popular and trustworthy. Social media influencers have amplified this effect dramatically in recent years.

Color psychology also plays a significant role in consumer perception. Different colors evoke different feelings—red stimulates urgency and passion, often used in clearance sales; blue is seen as trustworthy and calm, frequently chosen by financial institutions. Even the brightness and contrast levels are tested and modified to maximize user response.

Moreover, advertisers exploit the principle of scarcity. When people believe something is limited in availability, they tend to assign it more value. Common phrases like “limited time offer” or “only a few items left in stock” encourage quicker purchasing decisions by tapping into a fear of missing out (often abbreviated as FOMO).

Repetition is another psychological tactic used to increase brand recall. When people hear a message or see a logo repeatedly, it becomes familiar and more acceptable over time—a phenomenon known as the mere-exposure effect. This is why jingles, slogans, and repetitive TV ads often become ingrained in public consciousness.

However, modern consumers are more aware of these strategies than ever before. As a result, ethical advertising has gained attention, especially among younger demographics who value transparency and authenticity. Companies now face the challenge of balancing persuasion with honesty. Overuse of manipulative tactics can lead to skepticism and damage brand trust.

Recent studies in neuromarketing—a field that combines neuroscience and marketing—have revealed deeper insights. Brain scans show that certain types of storytelling in ads activate the same neural circuits involved in empathy and memory formation. A compelling narrative can make a product not just recognizable but emotionally significant.

Despite its many tools, advertising remains an evolving discipline. As digital platforms become more immersive and personalized, advertisers continue to refine their understanding of human behavior. The future of advertising lies not only in visibility but in emotional relevance, cultural sensitivity, and psychological precision.

📝 Questions 14–26

🔢 Questions 14–18: Matching Information

Match the statements with the correct paragraph (A–H). Write the correct letter.

14. Describes how repeated exposure builds familiarity.

15. Explains how urgency is created through limited availability.

16. Discusses the risk of public distrust in modern advertising.

17. Mentions brain studies that analyze emotional reactions to ads.

18. Highlights the role of color in shaping perception.
    
    

🔠 Questions 19–21: Multiple Choice

Choose ONE correct answer: A, B, C or D.

19. What is the main goal of using emotional appeal in advertising?
    A. To explain technical features of a product
    B. To offer discounts to customers
    C. To build a positive emotional connection
    D. To increase production rates
    
    

20. What is the function of social proof in advertising?
    A. To compare rival products
    B. To exploit people's emotions
    C. To promote discounts and sales
    D. To influence by showing popularity
    
    

21. Why do companies use phrases like “limited-time offer”?
    A. To avoid overproduction
    B. To make products appear more valuable
    C. To reduce advertising costs
    D. To show that the product is low in quality
    
    

📑 Questions 22–26: Sentence Completion

Complete each sentence with NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage.

22. Emotional marketing may trigger feelings such as __________ or excitement.

23. Social media __________ have strengthened the impact of social proof.

24. Blue is often chosen by banks because it symbolizes __________.

25. __________ in advertising can lead to public mistrust.

26. Effective __________ can activate empathy-related brain responses.

📄 Reading Passage 3

Geothermal energy, a renewable and sustainable source of power, originates from the natural heat of the Earth’s interior. This heat is produced by the slow decay of radioactive particles in the Earth's core, as well as residual heat from planetary formation. Accessible through hot water reservoirs and steam beneath the surface, geothermal energy offers an environmentally friendly alternative to fossil fuels.

The extraction process typically involves drilling deep wells to tap into underground reservoirs of steam or hot water, which then drive turbines connected to electricity generators. There are three main types of geothermal power plants: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle. Dry steam plants draw directly from underground steam sources, while flash steam plants use high-pressure hot water that quickly vaporizes—or “flashes”—into steam. Binary cycle plants, which are the most versatile, use moderate-temperature water to heat a secondary fluid with a lower boiling point, thus producing vapor to turn the turbines.

The advantages of geothermal energy are significant. Unlike solar or wind, geothermal power is baseload, meaning it provides a consistent and stable energy output, unaffected by weather or time of day. It also has a small land footprint, produces very low greenhouse gas emissions, and requires minimal fuel input after installation. Countries with volcanic or tectonically active regions—such as Iceland, the Philippines, and New Zealand—have particularly high geothermal potential.

However, geothermal energy is not without limitations. Its availability is highly location-specific, limiting its global scalability. Additionally, drilling deep wells is both expensive and technically demanding. In some regions, tapping into geothermal reservoirs has been associated with minor seismic activity, raising concerns about induced earthquakes.

Beyond electricity generation, geothermal energy has diverse applications. Direct-use geothermal systems provide heating for homes, greenhouses, and fish farms. In Reykjavik, Iceland, nearly 90% of homes are heated using geothermal water, illustrating its potential for district heating. Another method, called ground-source heat pumping, uses the relatively stable temperature of the upper soil layers for heating and cooling buildings, though this differs technically from deep geothermal systems.

Recent advancements have further increased the efficiency and feasibility of geothermal systems. Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), for instance, artificially create geothermal reservoirs by injecting water into hot, dry rock formations where natural water is absent. While still in experimental stages in many countries, EGS could revolutionize geothermal accessibility and expand its use into regions previously considered unsuitable.

On a global scale, geothermal energy still constitutes a small fraction of the total energy mix. According to the International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA), geothermal power accounted for less than 1% of global electricity generation as of 2022. However, as countries strive to meet carbon neutrality targets, interest and investment in geothermal technologies are growing.

The scientific community continues to study geothermal systems, not only for energy purposes but also for insights into geological processes and climate change. Understanding subsurface heat flow helps geologists predict volcanic activity and contributes to models of Earth's thermal evolution.

As the world seeks a transition toward cleaner and more sustainable energy sources, geothermal power stands out for its reliability, longevity, and environmental benefits. With the right infrastructure, investment, and research, it may become a cornerstone of future energy strategies.

📝 Questions 27–40

🔢 Questions 27–31: Matching Headings

Choose the correct heading for each section from the list below (i–viii).
Write the correct number (i–viii) next to Questions 27–31.

List of Headings:
i. Geothermal applications beyond electricity
ii. A cleaner alternative to fossil fuels
iii. The science behind Enhanced Geothermal Systems
iv. Geological significance of geothermal studies
v. The global status of geothermal power
vi. Environmental concerns and challenges
vii. An overview of power plant types
viii. How ground-source heat pumps work

27. Paragraph 2

28. Paragraph 3

29. Paragraph 4

30. Paragraph 5

31. Paragraph 7
    
    

🔠 Questions 32–34: Multiple Choice

Choose ONE correct answer: A, B, C or D.

32. What is one major benefit of geothermal energy compared to wind or solar?
    A. It requires advanced battery storage
    B. It works best during daylight
    C. It provides a consistent energy supply
    D. It needs large land areas
    
    

33. Why is binary cycle technology considered versatile?
    A. It can operate without water
    B. It doesn’t require drilling
    C. It uses moderate-temperature sources
    D. It produces more steam than flash systems
    
    

34. What is a concern related to some geothermal projects?
    A. High carbon emissions
    B. Risk of large-scale flooding
    C. Induced seismic activity
    D. Lack of government subsidies
    
    

📑 Questions 35–40: True / False / Not Given

Do the following statements agree with the passage?
Write:
TRUE – if the statement agrees with the passage
FALSE – if the statement contradicts the passage
NOT GIVEN – if there is no information

35. Dry steam plants are the most widely used geothermal systems worldwide.

36. Iceland generates most of its electricity from geothermal sources.

37. Ground-source heat pumps use shallow ground temperature to regulate indoor climate.

38. Enhanced Geothermal Systems require natural underground water to function.

39. The International Renewable Energy Agency promotes geothermal over wind energy.

40. Scientists use geothermal data to study volcanoes and Earth’s heat patterns.

➡️ Answer keys with Explanations

📄 Passage:

In recent years, urban agriculture has gained momentum as a response to growing concerns about food security, climate change, and population density. Among the most promising innovations in this field is vertical farming — the practice of growing crops in stacked layers, often integrated into urban buildings or dedicated high-tech facilities.

Vertical farming makes use of controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) technology, where factors such as temperature, humidity, light, and nutrients are precisely regulated. This enables farmers to grow produce year-round, unaffected by seasonal changes or outdoor weather conditions. The use of hydroponics or aeroponics — systems that deliver water and nutrients directly to roots without soil — significantly reduces water use compared to traditional farming. In fact, some systems claim to use up to 95% less water than conventional fields.

One of the major advantages of vertical farming is its potential to reduce the carbon footprint associated with food transportation. By producing vegetables and fruits close to where they will be consumed, urban farms can eliminate the need for long-haul logistics. Moreover, with fewer pests and diseases in a controlled indoor environment, reliance on chemical pesticides is greatly diminished.

Despite these advantages, vertical farming faces significant challenges. High initial investment costs for infrastructure, energy consumption for artificial lighting, and technical expertise required to manage complex systems are often cited as barriers to widespread adoption. For instance, while LED lighting is more efficient than traditional options, running these lights continuously contributes to high energy bills — especially in regions with less access to renewable energy sources.

Economically, the industry is still evolving. Large-scale operations such as those by AeroFarms in the United States or Plenty in California have received significant venture capital, but profitability remains elusive for many startups. Some critics argue that vertical farms are best suited for leafy greens and herbs, which have short growth cycles and high market value, but are less effective for staple crops like wheat or rice.

Socially, vertical farming represents a shift in how people view food production. It repositions farming from rural landscapes to urban centers and introduces younger generations to agriculture through technology. Educational institutions and city planners have begun to incorporate vertical gardens in schools, libraries, and office buildings as a way to promote sustainability and food literacy.

As climate unpredictability continues to threaten global agricultural yields, vertical farming may play a critical role in diversifying food sources. In regions with limited arable land or harsh climates, such as the Middle East or densely populated Asian cities, vertical farms can offer a sustainable alternative. However, their long-term success will depend on continued innovation, energy-efficient technologies, and policies that support urban agriculture.

🧪 Question Set (Questions 1–13):

Questions 1–5: Choose the correct letter A, B, C or D.

1. What is the primary benefit of CEA technology in vertical farming?
   A. It eliminates the need for any human supervision
   B. It reduces the need for renewable energy sources
   C. It ensures year-round crop production regardless of climate
   D. It doubles the yield of staple crops
   
   

2. According to the text, how does vertical farming minimize transportation emissions?
   A. By using self-driving vehicles
   B. By locating farms in rural supply hubs
   C. By growing food close to urban consumers
   D. By eliminating all packaging materials
   
   

3. What is mentioned as a challenge facing vertical farming?
   A. Inadequate rainfall
   B. Lack of interest from urban populations
   C. Overproduction of staple grains
   D. High costs and technical complexity
   
   

4. Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a use of vertical farming in society?
   A. Military food supply
   B. Sustainability education
   C. Urban office integration
   D. Public awareness in schools
   
   

5. The passage suggests vertical farming may be most viable for:
   A. Root vegetables like potatoes
   B. Large-scale livestock production
   C. Leafy greens with short growth cycles
   D. Exporting crops internationally
   
   

Questions 6–10: Do the following statements agree with the information in the passage?
Write:
TRUE – if the statement agrees with the information
FALSE – if the statement contradicts the information
NOT GIVEN – if there is no information on this

6. Vertical farming typically uses more water than traditional farming methods.

7. AeroFarms and Plenty are examples of companies trying to scale vertical farming.

8. Vertical farming is currently profitable in all urban centers.

9. Educational institutions are involved in promoting vertical farming awareness.

10. Vertical farming can replace traditional farming entirely in the future.
    
    

Questions 11–13: Complete the summary below.
Choose ONE WORD ONLY from the passage for each answer.

Summary Completion

Vertical farming has emerged as a solution to urban food challenges. Using (11) ______ and soilless methods, crops are cultivated in stacked layers indoors. The approach reduces dependency on (12) ______ and allows for local production, thus cutting emissions. However, the system still faces obstacles such as high (13) ______ requirements and limited crop variety.

📄 Passage:

In the past, public libraries were considered the primary source of information and education for the general public. Today, however, they face increasing competition from digital platforms offering instant access to e-books, online courses, and multimedia content. Despite these pressures, public libraries have not disappeared. Instead, they are reinventing themselves to remain relevant in the digital age.

Modern libraries have evolved beyond book lending. Many now function as community hubs, offering coworking spaces, digital media labs, and free internet access. In economically disadvantaged neighborhoods, this digital access plays a vital role in bridging the digital divide. For people without reliable home internet, libraries provide essential services such as printing resumes, attending virtual interviews, or completing online schoolwork.

One key transformation has been the integration of digital literacy programs. Rather than focusing solely on traditional reading, libraries have expanded to include workshops on online safety, coding for children, and even technology troubleshooting for senior citizens. These programs aim to ensure that all age groups can navigate the modern digital environment confidently.

The architecture of libraries has also changed. Older models emphasized silence and study, while today’s designs often include open areas for group discussion, audio-visual zones, and even cafes. Architects now view libraries as dynamic, multifunctional public spaces rather than quiet repositories of books.

Still, funding remains a concern. While some cities have invested heavily in modernizing their library systems, others have cut budgets due to shifting priorities or economic constraints. The disparity is particularly visible in rural versus urban areas. While metropolitan libraries may offer state-of-the-art amenities, rural branches sometimes struggle to maintain even basic services.

Another challenge is the perception of redundancy. With the proliferation of smartphones and affordable data plans, some argue that public libraries are no longer essential. However, advocates counter this by emphasizing libraries’ role in promoting equal opportunity, supporting early childhood education, and encouraging lifelong learning.

In fact, during crises such as the COVID-19 pandemic, libraries played an unexpected role. Many offered curbside pickup services, virtual story times for children, and expanded access to e-book lending platforms. Some even partnered with local food banks to support vulnerable populations.

Libraries are also increasingly curating digital content and forming partnerships with educational institutions. Collaborations with universities, for example, have led to open-access research portals and community lecture series. In some countries, libraries have become central to national digital inclusion strategies.

The future of public libraries may lie in their flexibility. As community needs evolve, so too will the services libraries offer — whether through augmented reality archives, maker spaces for inventors, or language learning cafés. What remains unchanged is the core mission: to offer free, inclusive access to knowledge.

🧪 Question Set (Questions 14–26):

Questions 14–18: Choose the correct letter A, B, C, or D.

14. According to the passage, how have public libraries responded to digital competition?
    A. They have focused more on book preservation.
    B. They have shut down branches in rural areas.
    C. They have transformed their services to stay relevant.
    D. They have increased investment in printed collections.
    
    

15. What is one major benefit of libraries in low-income communities?
    A. Free workshops on architecture.
    B. Access to technology otherwise unavailable.
    C. Premium subscriptions to newspapers.
    D. Delivery services for senior citizens.
    
    

16. What is mentioned as a recent architectural trend in library design?
    A. Removing study areas altogether.
    B. Incorporating silent-only zones.
    C. Encouraging open, multifunctional spaces.
    D. Building underground archives.
    
    

17. What happened to many libraries during the pandemic?
    A. They suspended all services indefinitely.
    B. They became hospitals and emergency shelters.
    C. They shifted to virtual and socially distant services.
    D. They were replaced by online bookstores.
    
    

18. What does the author imply about the long-term future of libraries?
    A. They may cease to exist.
    B. Their success will depend on digital media sales.
    C. They will likely become paid-membership platforms.
    D. Their adaptability is key to their continued role.
    
    

Questions 19–23: Complete the summary below using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS.

Summary Completion

Libraries have changed significantly in recent years. Rather than only serving as (19) ________, they now function as active (20) ________. Their services include access to internet and printers, as well as (21) ________ workshops for people of all ages. Although some cities fund high-tech improvements, others face (22) ________ due to limited resources. Still, during emergencies, many libraries have proven their value by offering (23) ________ and digital services.

Questions 24–26: Do the following statements agree with the information in the passage?
Write:

• TRUE – if the statement agrees with the information

• FALSE – if the statement contradicts the information

• NOT GIVEN – if there is no information
  
  

24. All public libraries now offer coding workshops and AR archives.

25. Rural libraries often struggle to keep up with digital innovations.

26. Some libraries collaborate with universities to provide online research access.

📄 Passage:

Sleep is a fundamental biological process that affects virtually every system in the human body. While most people understand the importance of getting a good night’s sleep, few realize the complexity of the brain activity involved in this seemingly passive state. The sleep cycle consists of multiple stages, each playing a distinct physiological and cognitive role.

The sleep cycle is broadly divided into two categories: REM (Rapid Eye Movement) sleep and non-REM sleep. Non-REM sleep has three stages, ranging from light sleep to deep, slow-wave sleep. These stages are responsible for physical restoration—muscle repair, immune function enhancement, and energy replenishment. REM sleep, in contrast, is associated with vivid dreams and plays a crucial role in memory consolidation and emotional processing.

A typical adult undergoes four to six sleep cycles per night, each lasting approximately 90 minutes. Early in the night, the body spends more time in deep non-REM sleep, whereas REM sleep dominates the later cycles, particularly in the early morning. Any disruption to this cycle—due to stress, irregular schedules, or medical conditions—can impair cognitive performance and emotional regulation.

Scientific interest in sleep has grown due to its connection to numerous health conditions. Chronic sleep deprivation has been linked to an increased risk of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, obesity, and mental health disorders such as depression and anxiety. Additionally, recent studies have shown that poor sleep can accelerate neurodegenerative diseases by interfering with the brain’s glymphatic system, which clears waste products during sleep.

One fascinating area of research involves circadian rhythms—the internal biological clock that governs the sleep-wake cycle. These rhythms are influenced by external factors such as light exposure and meal timing, but they are also genetically regulated. When circadian rhythms are misaligned, as seen in shift workers or individuals with jet lag, the result is often sleep disorders and metabolic disturbances.

Another key player in the regulation of sleep is melatonin, a hormone secreted by the pineal gland in response to darkness. Melatonin levels rise in the evening, promoting sleep, and fall in the morning as light stimulates wakefulness. However, excessive exposure to artificial light—especially blue light from screens—can inhibit melatonin production, delaying sleep onset and reducing overall sleep quality.

Modern life presents a paradox: while technological advancements have made our lives more convenient, they have also introduced new barriers to healthy sleep. Irregular work hours, nighttime screen use, and overstimulation from social media have contributed to what sleep researchers call a “sleep debt crisis.” In response, sleep hygiene practices—such as maintaining a consistent sleep schedule, limiting caffeine intake, and creating a calming bedtime routine—are now widely recommended.

Sleep research continues to evolve, with growing interest in individual differences in sleep need and sleep architecture. Some people naturally require more or less sleep, and the proportion of REM versus non-REM sleep may vary due to age, lifestyle, and genetics. Personalized sleep medicine, which tailors interventions to the individual’s sleep profile, may represent the future of insomnia treatment and general well-being optimization.

What is clear is that sleep is not merely a luxury but a necessity. As our understanding deepens, the evidence continues to show that protecting and prioritizing sleep is critical not just for energy and mood—but for long-term brain and body health.

🧪 Question Set (Questions 27–40)

Questions 27–30: Choose the correct letter A, B, C, or D.

27. What is the main purpose of non-REM sleep?
    A. To process emotional memories
    B. To assist in physical repair and recovery
    C. To regulate hormone levels
    D. To increase dreaming frequency
    
    

28. Which of the following best describes REM sleep?
    A. A stage with low brain activity and no movement
    B. A period of muscle regeneration
    C. The deepest stage of sleep
    D. The stage involved in vivid dreams and memory functions
    
    

29. What risk is associated with chronic sleep deprivation?
    A. Increased risk of improved metabolism
    B. Strengthened immune response
    C. Higher likelihood of serious health conditions
    D. Less need for REM sleep
    
    

30. What role does melatonin play in sleep?
    A. It helps digest food during sleep
    B. It stimulates brainwave activity
    C. It promotes sleep in response to darkness
    D. It replaces light exposure for brain regulation

Questions 31–35: Complete the summary using NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS from the passage.

Summary Completion

Sleep consists of several distinct (31) ________, divided into REM and non-REM categories. While non-REM supports physical restoration, REM is crucial for (32) ________ and emotional functions. On average, a person experiences about (33) ________ sleep cycles each night. Circadian rhythms, which are regulated both by genetics and (34) ________, influence when we feel sleepy or alert. Excessive exposure to (35) ________ can suppress melatonin and delay sleep.

Questions 36–40: Do the following statements agree with the information in the passage?
Write:

• TRUE – if the statement agrees with the information

• FALSE – if the statement contradicts the information

• NOT GIVEN – if there is no information
  
  

36. People spend more time in REM sleep early in the night.

37. The glymphatic system functions only during REM sleep.

38. Shift work can cause disruptions to natural biological rhythms.

39. All people need exactly 8 hours of sleep per night.

40. The sleep-wake cycle is influenced by both internal and external factors.

✅ Passage 1: "The History of Paper Making" (Q1–13)

1. C – The passage explains that papyrus was the earliest material for writing, fitting the description of "first writing material."

2. A – Paper was cheaper and easier to produce, as stated in the paragraph discussing its advantages over parchment.

3. C – The transition to machine-based production increased efficiency, matching this summary.

4. D – This reflects the European role in developing paper-making machinery.

5. NOT GIVEN – The passage doesn’t compare the longevity of digital vs. traditional paper.

6. TRUE – It explicitly says China first invented paper.

7. TRUE – Mentioned in the context of paper being crucial for recordkeeping and culture.

8. FALSE – The passage explains that the process of recycling paper has existed for centuries.

9. Europe – Specifically mentioned as the region where paper mills spread in the 12th century.

10. bamboo – A raw material listed in the passage for early paper-making.

11. Gutenberg – The inventor of the printing press in Europe.

12. newspapers – Used as the primary example of mass literacy and distribution.

13. recycling – A major theme in the last paragraph, referencing sustainability.

✅ Passage 2: "Digital Twins and Industry 4.0" (Q14–26)

14. TRUE – The passage clearly states digital twins replicate real-world assets digitally.

15. FALSE – It explains that digital twins do exist in many industries now.

16. NOT GIVEN – There’s no comparison between digital twins and blockchain.

17. TRUE – The second paragraph discusses predictive maintenance saving time and cost.

18. FALSE – It notes that digital twins are also used for planning and testing, not just monitoring.

19. simulation – A keyword related to running scenarios in a digital environment.

20. manufacturing – An industry where digital twins are widely used.

21. hospital – The passage includes examples like hospitals for healthcare applications.

22. sensors – These are central to feeding real-time data into the digital twin.

23. prediction – Used when describing predictive maintenance.

24. complexity – Highlighted as one of the implementation challenges.

25. integration – A challenge mentioned in aligning physical and digital systems.

26. cybersecurity – Listed among the top concerns in deploying digital twins.

✅ Passage 3: "The Science of Human Sleep Cycles" (Q27–40)

27. B – Non-REM is described as responsible for physical repair.

28. D – REM is linked to dreams and memory consolidation.

29. C – Chronic sleep deprivation is tied to major health risks.

30. C – Melatonin promotes sleep in response to darkness.

31. stages – Referencing the structure of the sleep cycle.

32. memory – REM sleep supports memory functions.

33. 90 minutes – Each cycle lasts this long, and people have multiple per night.

34. light exposure – One of the external influences on circadian rhythm.

35. artificial light – Blue light from screens disrupts melatonin.

36. FALSE – REM dominates the later cycles, not early in the night.

37. FALSE – The glymphatic system works during sleep generally, not only REM.

38. TRUE – Clearly mentioned as a disruptor of circadian rhythm.

39. FALSE – The passage states people vary in sleep needs.

40. TRUE – Circadian rhythms are influenced by both genes and environment.

📘 Reading Passage

The Secret Lives of Urban Trees
In the midst of concrete jungles, urban trees stand as overlooked sentinels. Far more than decorative green fixtures, these living organisms play vital roles in regulating air quality, managing stormwater, and supporting human well-being. Yet, only recently have researchers begun to uncover the dynamic lives of trees thriving in cities.

Urban forestry is now a multidisciplinary field that blends ecology, climatology, health sciences, and engineering. Scientists have discovered that city trees differ significantly from their forest counterparts—not just in appearance but also in function and physiology. Their root systems often grow shallow due to compacted soil and underground infrastructure. Additionally, heat islands—urban areas with elevated temperatures—cause trees to grow faster but often age prematurely.

A fascinating aspect of urban trees is their role in carbon sequestration. While forests are traditionally associated with storing carbon dioxide, urban trees can be more efficient per tree due to their rapid growth and longer growing seasons. However, this efficiency is sometimes offset by increased mortality rates due to stress from pollution, limited space, and mechanical damage from vehicles or human activity.

One breakthrough study from the University of Toronto used acoustic sensors to monitor the internal “clicks” and “pops” of city trees. These sounds indicate internal water stress or embolism—air bubbles blocking water flow in xylem vessels. Researchers concluded that trees in highly trafficked areas experience more stress, even when visually healthy.

Beyond environmental impact, urban trees also influence human psychology. Exposure to green spaces has been linked to reduced anxiety, improved mood, and lower cortisol levels. One long-term study in Chicago found that individuals living on tree-lined streets reported higher satisfaction with life, even after controlling for income and employment status.

Urban planners are now using this data to promote “green infrastructure”—a strategy that includes not only planting more trees but planting the right trees. Native species tend to adapt better and require less maintenance. Moreover, diversity is critical. Monoculture planting, where a single tree species dominates an area, has historically made cities vulnerable to pests and diseases. The case of the American elm, devastated by Dutch elm disease in the mid-20th century, remains a cautionary tale.

Some cities are experimenting with "smart trees"—urban trees embedded with sensors to monitor soil moisture, air quality, and temperature. These high-tech additions allow city officials to remotely manage tree health and even predict when a tree might fall.

Despite these innovations, challenges persist. In lower-income neighborhoods, tree canopy coverage tends to be significantly lower than in wealthier districts, creating what some researchers call a “shade gap.” This disparity contributes to higher summer temperatures, lower air quality, and reduced access to mental health benefits in marginalized communities.

Ultimately, the value of urban trees extends far beyond aesthetics. As cities prepare for rising temperatures and denser populations, trees must be viewed as integral components of urban infrastructure—living, evolving systems that demand both attention and respect.

🧠 Questions 1–5: Matching Information

Match each statement with the correct paragraph, A–G.

1. A technological method to measure tree stress
2. How urban heat affects tree life cycles
3. Differences in tree benefits across economic zones
4. Psychological advantages of tree-lined environments
5. An example showing the danger of lack of biodiversity

✅ Questions 6–10: True / False / Not Given

6. Urban trees store more total carbon than trees in forests.
7. Acoustic monitoring can detect issues invisible to the human eye.
8. All smart trees are capable of predicting wind direction.
9. Green infrastructure includes tree planting and stormwater systems.
10. City trees rarely suffer from diseases.

✍️ Questions 11–13: Sentence Completion

Complete the sentences using no more than two words.

11. Urban trees tend to have shallow roots due to __________ and limited space.
12. Long-term stress in trees may result from __________ exposure.
13. One solution to promote tree resilience is increasing __________ diversity.

📘 Reading Passage

The Evolution of Crowdsourcing

The term crowdsourcing was coined in 2006 by journalist Jeff Howe to describe a new phenomenon: using large groups of people, typically via the internet, to perform tasks once done by professionals. But the idea of distributing work among a broad base is far from new. In fact, examples of crowdsourcing can be traced back centuries.

One of the earliest recorded cases comes from 1714, when the British government offered a reward—known as the Longitude Prize—for anyone who could devise a reliable method for determining a ship’s longitude at sea. This public challenge attracted inventors and scientists across the country, and ultimately led to the development of the marine chronometer.

In modern times, technology has dramatically increased the scope, speed, and sophistication of crowdsourcing. Wikipedia is perhaps the most recognizable example—a global encyclopedia written and edited by volunteers. Despite skepticism over the quality of publicly edited content, Wikipedia is often found to be as reliable as traditional encyclopedias, thanks to its transparent editing history and rapid updates.

Another major application of crowdsourcing is in scientific research. Projects like Galaxy Zoo ask internet users to classify images of galaxies—a task that would take decades for a small research team but can be accomplished in weeks through collective effort. This method of engaging the public in academic research is referred to as citizen science.

In the business world, crowdsourcing is used for innovation, problem-solving, and product development. Platforms such as Innocentive allow companies to post complex challenges to a global pool of experts and hobbyists alike. The winning solution often comes from an unexpected source—sometimes a student or retiree with unique insight.

Design and branding have also been transformed by crowdsourcing. Websites like 99designs allow clients to receive design submissions from hundreds of freelancers, selecting their favorite and awarding the winner a prize. While this democratizes opportunities, it also raises concerns about exploitation and devaluation of creative labor.

Crowdsourcing has also entered public policy. Governments have experimented with sourcing ideas from citizens on issues ranging from urban planning to constitutional reform. Iceland, for example, used crowdsourcing techniques in 2011 to draft a new constitution by collecting public feedback via social media.

However, not all aspects of crowdsourcing are positive. Critics argue that the quality of contributions is inconsistent and that relying on unpaid labor can create ethical dilemmas. Moreover, the anonymity of the internet may foster irresponsible or harmful behavior if not carefully moderated.

Despite these concerns, the future of crowdsourcing looks bright. With the rise of artificial intelligence, many anticipate hybrid models where humans and machines collaborate—humans bringing creativity and judgment, while AI handles data processing and pattern recognition.

Ultimately, crowdsourcing represents a shift in how value is created. It challenges the traditional boundaries of expertise, authority, and ownership, encouraging new forms of collaboration in the digital age.

🧠 Questions 14–17: Matching Features

Match each use of crowdsourcing with the correct benefit.

Uses:
A. Wikipedia
B. Scientific research
C. Business problem-solving
D. Public policy

Benefits:
14. Allows ordinary people to contribute to professional research
15. Provides governments with citizen input
16. Demonstrates the value of collective knowledge
17. Encourages unexpected solutions from diverse backgrounds

✅ Questions 18–21: Multiple Choice

Choose the correct letter: A, B, C, or D.

18. The marine chronometer was developed as a result of:
A. Government funding of universities
B. A public contest with a reward
C. A collaboration between countries
D. An accidental discovery

19. What is one reason for the success of Wikipedia mentioned in the text?
A. It is written only by experts.
B. It requires users to verify identities.
C. It is updated frequently and transparently.
D. It is owned by a large publishing company.

20. What is a concern raised about creative crowdsourcing platforms?
A. They ignore user feedback.
B. They reduce the value of creative work.
C. They are too expensive for freelancers.
D. They lack visual quality.

21. What is a potential future direction for crowdsourcing?
A. Outsourcing work to corporations
B. Government control over citizen projects
C. Human-AI collaborative crowdsourcing
D. Banning public contributions altogether

✍️ Questions 22–26: Yes / No / Not Given

Do the following statements agree with the views of the writer?

22. Crowdsourcing began after the internet became widely available.
23. Galaxy Zoo was a project that relied heavily on expert scientists.
24. Crowdsourcing has been used in writing government constitutions.
25. Ethical concerns about crowdsourcing are no longer relevant.
26. AI may enhance the effectiveness of future crowdsourcing models.

📘 Reading Passage

The Science of Geothermal Energy

Paragraph A
Geothermal energy originates from the heat stored beneath the Earth’s surface. This heat stems from both the planet’s original formation and the radioactive decay of elements such as uranium, thorium, and potassium within the Earth’s crust and mantle. While temperatures at the Earth’s core can reach over 6,000°C, usable geothermal energy is typically extracted from depths of 1 to 10 kilometers, where temperatures range between 150°C and 400°C. Unlike fossil fuels, geothermal energy is considered renewable, as heat from the Earth is virtually inexhaustible on a human timescale.

Paragraph B
The methods of extracting geothermal energy vary depending on geological conditions. In areas with naturally occurring geothermal reservoirs—such as Iceland, the Philippines, and parts of the United States—high-temperature fluids are tapped directly to generate electricity. These reservoirs are typically found near tectonic plate boundaries where volcanic activity is high. In other regions, engineers use enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), which involve injecting water into hot dry rock to produce steam. This process requires advanced drilling and stimulation techniques and is still being optimized for commercial use.

Paragraph C
Geothermal plants fall into three main categories: dry steam, flash steam, and binary cycle. Dry steam plants are the oldest and use steam extracted directly from underground reservoirs. Flash steam plants take high-pressure hot water and allow it to vaporize or "flash" into steam when pressure is reduced. Binary cycle plants, on the other hand, pass geothermal fluid through a secondary fluid with a lower boiling point, such as isobutane, which vaporizes and drives the turbine. Binary systems are well suited for lower-temperature resources and are considered more environmentally friendly due to closed-loop designs.

Paragraph D
The environmental impact of geothermal energy is comparatively low. Unlike coal or gas plants, geothermal facilities emit very little greenhouse gases. However, some environmental challenges remain. These include the release of trace gases such as hydrogen sulfide, land subsidence, and potential contamination of groundwater if wells are not properly sealed. Additionally, the siting of geothermal plants can conflict with local ecosystems or indigenous land rights, requiring careful environmental assessment and community consultation.

Paragraph E
Despite its advantages, geothermal energy faces economic and technical barriers. The high upfront cost of drilling and exploration can deter investment, especially when geological risks are uncertain. Operating costs are generally low once a plant is running, but the initial capital can be up to 60% of total project cost. Furthermore, geothermal resources are geographically limited, and effective utilization depends on local heat gradients, permeability, and water availability. Advances in drilling technology, subsurface imaging, and EGS are critical to expanding geothermal potential globally.

Paragraph F
In the context of global decarbonization, geothermal energy plays a vital role in the transition to a cleaner energy system. Unlike solar or wind, it provides a consistent and reliable base load supply. Countries such as Kenya, New Zealand, and Indonesia have significantly increased their geothermal capacity, integrating it into national energy strategies. Moreover, direct use of geothermal heat—such as for district heating, greenhouses, or industrial applications—offers energy-efficient alternatives in regions with suitable resources.

🔢 Questions 27–32: Matching Headings

Choose the correct heading for each paragraph (A–F) from the list of headings below.
Write the correct number (i–ix) in boxes 27–32.

List of Headings:
i. Limitations of geothermal energy development
ii. Examples of countries leading in geothermal expansion
iii. A new method for accessing deeper heat
iv. Varieties of geothermal energy conversion systems
v. Introduction to geothermal heat origin
vi. Environmental challenges and benefits
vii. Geothermal energy in everyday use
viii. The difference between renewable and non-renewable sources
ix. How geothermal systems emit greenhouse gases

27. Paragraph A
28. Paragraph B
29. Paragraph C
30. Paragraph D
31. Paragraph E
32. Paragraph F

🔗 Questions 33–36: Matching Sentence Endings

Complete each sentence with the correct ending (A–F) from the list below.
Write the correct letter in boxes 33–36.

33. Enhanced geothermal systems involve
34. Binary cycle plants are suitable for
35. Environmental concerns may arise if
36. High initial investment is necessary due to

List of Endings:
A. the need for exploration and drilling.
B. the re-injection of water into the ground.
C. access to areas near volcanic activity.
D. improper sealing of geothermal wells.
E. the use of low-boiling-point fluids.
F. the presence of radioactive elements.

📊 Questions 37–40: Flowchart Completion

Complete the flowchart below using words from the passage.
Write NO MORE THAN TWO WORDS for each answer.

Generating Geothermal Power – Binary Cycle System

1️⃣ Geothermal (37) __________ is pumped from underground.
2️⃣ Heat is transferred to a (38) __________ fluid with a low boiling point.
3️⃣ This fluid (39) __________ into vapor.
4️⃣ The vapor drives a (40) __________, producing electricity.

📘 Passage 1: “Plastic Waste and Packaging Innovations”

1. C – Paragraph 1 discusses rising global waste levels.

2. B – Paragraph 2 describes recent innovations in packaging.

3. A – Mentions biodegradable material as a key focus.

4. C – Paragraph 3 highlights landfill problems.

5. A – Paragraph 4 outlines sustainable solutions.

6. B – Cities adopting new packaging policies is the focus.

7. TRUE – Stated clearly in the first paragraph.

8. NOT GIVEN – No info about all industries.

9. FALSE – Contradicts statement about plastic alternatives.

10. TRUE – Statistics support this in the passage.

11. FALSE – Contradicted by details on plastic production.

12. NOT GIVEN – No date or commitment about 2030.

13. FALSE – Cost concerns are discussed but not supported.
    
    

📘 Passage 2: “The Urban Farming Revolution”

14. A – Paragraph A = new farming in cities.

15. E – Paragraph B = slow development & barriers.

16. D – Paragraph C = technology in vertical farming.

17. B – Paragraph D = economic feasibility.

18. G – Paragraph E = societal/community value.

19. D – Matches the sentence logic and content.

20. C – Coherent and grammatically correct match.

21. B – Fits syntactically and logically.

22. A – Only suitable completion for that idea.

23. E – Matches sentence structure and context.

24. F – Makes a meaningful conclusion.
    
    

📘 Passage 3: “The Science of Geothermal Energy”

25. vii – Paragraph A = basic concept of geothermal systems.

26. iii – Paragraph B = geological formation and heat.

27. vi – Paragraph C = history and discovery timeline.

28. v – Paragraph D = extraction techniques explained.

29. ii – Paragraph E = recent scientific advances.

30. i – Paragraph F = long-term obstacles.

31. B – Explicit reference to hot springs.

32. D – Groundwater pressure described here.

33. C – Linked to temperature gradient info.

34. A – Energy harnessing steps outlined.

35. evaporation – The process begins here.

36. condensation – Follow-up phase to evaporation

37. infiltration – Mentioned in geological water cycle.

38. geothermal reservoir – Final destination of heat.

39. turbine

40. generator